Research libraryCarbon per Garment
Chapter 06 of 14 · Part II · Draft web edition
Processing geography, thermal energy and functional performance can matter as much as the fibre name.
The cloth is woven from this chapter's 5 exhibits: each weft is one exhibit's own data, normalised; each warp group is a section. The probe reads the exhibit's own value where it crosses. Procedural visualisation, not a measurement.
Read-out
Sourced directly from the six manufacturing stages in Tables S3, S4, S5 and S6 of Forfora et al. (2026) and its Supplemental Material (S31, S0601) for the China baseline scenario (100-year GWP, ReCiPe 2016 H). Raw-material rail transport adds 0.30, 0.09, 0.12 and 0.06 kg CO2eq/kg to reach full Table S7 totals of 14.09, 14.41, 20.68 and 21.61 kg CO2eq/kg.
Unit: kg CO2eq per kg of finished T-shirt. Status: sourced. Sources: S31, S0601.
A garment's embodied carbon is determined less by the generic name of its fibre than by the electrical grids, steam boilers, chemical recovery loops and mechanical specifications that convert raw feedstock into finished fabric.[S08][S31] Across apparel supply chains, upstream material production, yarn preparation, fabric formation and wet processing routinely account for more than half of full life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, dwarfing the direct electricity used in final cut, make and trim assembly.[S08][S31] In the April 2026 comparative T-shirt life cycle assessment (LCA) by Forfora et al., evaluated across cotton, polyester, viscose and Lyocell under one consistent cradle-to-gate model in China, 1 kilogram of cotton T-shirts records the lowest global warming potential at 14.09 kg CO2eq/kg (14.1 kg CO2eq/kg in headline summaries), followed by polyester at 14.41 kg CO2eq/kg, viscose at 20.68 kg CO2eq/kg and Lyocell at 21.61 kg CO2eq/kg (21.6 kg CO2eq/kg).[S31][S0601] Yet three operational variables reorder that apparent hierarchy: shifting manufacturing from China's coal-heavy energy supply to Brazil's cleaner grid and biomass-rich steam mix cuts global warming impacts by up to 38 percent across the studied fibres, scaling garment weight to equivalent yarn tenacity reduces required polyester mass from 250 grams to 115 grams and Lyocell mass to 153 grams, and improving solvent or heat recovery alters process intensity within a single fibre class.[S31][S0601] For Green Future Tech Limited (GFT) and its Cameroon textile programme, where about 95 percent of cotton lint is exported raw against 5 percent processed locally and national policy targets 50 percent domestic processing by 2030, localising spinning, knitting, weaving and dyeing will only yield low-carbon garments if electricity, steam, chemicals and stage losses are metered by process stage from the first shift.[R06][R07][S20][S23]
6.1
Read-out
Maps seven apparel value-chain activities for a standalone garment factory under operational control. X-axis orders product life cycle stages from cradle (1 = cotton field) to grave (7 = end-of-life) per S01. Y-axis maps corporate Scope assignment (1 = Scope 1 direct, 2 = Scope 2 purchased energy, 3 = Scope 3 value chain) per S02, S04 and S23.
Unit: stage index (x) and scope index (y). Status: sourced. Sources: S01, S02, S04, S23.
Read this exhibit in its chapter ↗6.1 · Introduction
An accurate product carbon account begins by locating where physical energy and chemical transformations occur along the supply chain rather than treating the sewing factory as the centre of the inventory.
Exhibit 05, chapter 02: 1. Cotton field and ginning (Cat 1)
6.2 · Upstream tiers carry the bulk of apparel value-chain carbon
Sector inventories in the SBTi apparel guidance confirm that dyeing and finishing, yarn preparation and fibre production (Tiers 2 to 4) are the most carbon-intensive phases of apparel manufacturing and frequently represent more than 50 percent of full cradle-to-grave emissions.
Exhibit 05, chapter 02: 1. Cotton field and ginning (Cat 1)
6.3 · Raw material and staple fibre mechanisms differ sharply across the four major fibres
Examining Raw material and Staple spinning in Exhibit 26 explains why natural, synthetic and man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCFs) enter the yarn mill with distinct energy and chemical profiles.
Exhibit 05, chapter 02: 2. Spinning and fabric mill (Cat 1)
6.1 · the bodyThe film above follows these sub-steps.
An accurate product carbon account begins by locating where physical energy and chemical transformations occur along the supply chain rather than treating the sewing factory as the centre of the inventory.[S08][S23] In the value-chain architecture defined by the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) and World Resources Institute (WRI) for the apparel sector, manufacturing spans five tiers: Tier 4 covers raw material extraction and cultivation (cotton farming, pulp forestry, synthetic polymers); Tier 3 covers staple fibre and yarn spinning; Tier 2 covers material production and finishing (knitting, weaving, pretreatment, dyeing, printing and finishing); Tier 1 covers finished product assembly (cutting, sewing and packaging); and Tier 0 covers offices, distribution and retail.[S08] Because Tier 1 assembly relies on fractional-kilowatt sewing and cutting machines, whereas Tiers 2 to 4 require polymerisation, chemical regeneration, ring spinning and pressurised steam dyeing, the upstream tiers carry the dominant carbon burden.[S08][S31]
whereas Tiers 2 to 4 require polymerisation
S08, S31
Sector inventories in the SBTi apparel guidance confirm that dyeing and finishing, yarn preparation and fibre production (Tiers 2 to 4) are the most carbon-intensive phases of apparel manufacturing and frequently represent more than 50 percent of full cradle-to-grave emissions.[S08] Corporate disclosures illustrate this concentration: in a 2016 full value-chain inventory for Levi Strauss and Co. totalling 5.24 million tonnes of CO2e, fabric production accounted for 31 percent of emissions and cotton cultivation for 10 percent, against 9 percent for assembly, 6 percent for sundries and 6 percent for transport.[S08] Similarly, C&A's 2017 inventory of 5,032,903 tonnes of CO2e recorded 95.86 percent of emissions in Scope 3, with 73.15 percent in Category 1 (Purchased goods and services), while Nike's footprint attributed 19 percent to polyester, 19 percent to colour and finishing, 15 percent to foam and rubber, 7 percent to cotton and 7 percent to leather, against 7 percent for assembly.[S02][S08]
To isolate how each upstream stage contributes without methodological distortion across studies, Forfora et al. (2026) modelled 1 kilogram of finished T-shirts made from cotton, polyester, viscose and Lyocell across seven cradle-to-gate stages: raw material production, transport, staple spinning, yarn production (ring spinning), knitting, wet processing and finishing, and T-shirt manufacture.[S31][S0601] Exhibit 26 presents the exact stage-by-stage global warming potential (GWP) values from the study's Chinese baseline inventory (Tables S3 to S7).[S31][S0601]
Forfora et al. (2026) modelled 1 kilogram of finished T-shirts made from cotton
S31, S0601
As Exhibit 26 shows, final garment assembly contributes only 0.51 kg CO2eq/kg for cotton, viscose and Lyocell (2.4 to 3.6 percent of cradle-to-gate totals) and 0.76 kg CO2eq/kg for polyester (5.3 percent, higher because cutting-waste incineration releases 2.31 kg CO2/kg synthetic waste whereas cellulosic combustion is biogenic).[S31][S0601] The remaining 94.7 to 97.6 percent of emissions occur before dyed fabric reaches the cutting table.[S31][S0601] While Exhibit 26 establishes the exact stage breakdown for the Chinese baseline model, it cannot serve as a universal lookup table for other countries or mills, because each segment reflects China's coal-dominated energy factors and literature-average yields.[S16][S31]
final garment assembly contributes only 0.51 kg CO2eq/kg for cotton
S31, S0601
Examining Raw material and Staple spinning in Exhibit 26 explains why natural, synthetic and man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCFs) enter the yarn mill with distinct energy and chemical profiles.[S31][S0601] Global 2024 production reached roughly 90 million tonnes of polyester, 26.4 million tonnes of cotton, 6.4 million tonnes of viscose and 0.7 million tonnes of Lyocell, within a total fibre market that Textile Exchange reports rose from 125 million tonnes in 2023 to 132 million tonnes in 2024.[S07][S31] Each fibre family reaches the spinning gate through a different mechanism:[S31]
Global 2024 production reached roughly 90 million tonnes of polyester
S07, S31
0.00 kg CO2eq/kg in staple spinning) because ginned lint is already a staple fibre.[S31][S0601] Its initial burden sits in Raw material at 3.83 kg CO2eq/kg shirt, plus 0.30 kg CO2eq/kg for 4,002 km of rail transport (1.46 field emissions, 1.43 fertilisers at 116.3 kg N, 77.4 kg P2O5 and 49.4 kg K2O/t lint at 2.33 t/ha yield, 0.86 irrigation/ginning power at 657.3 kWh/t lint, and 0.08 heat).[S31][S0601] At the staple gate, cotton lint registers 2.8 kg CO2eq/kg (range 1.0 to 5.2), while incurring the highest water use at 2.91 m3/kg shirt (2,310 m3/t irrigation), land use at 6.74 m2a crop eq/kg shirt and terrestrial ecotoxicity at 189.07 kg 1,4-DCB eq/kg shirt.[S31][S0601]3.89 heat) plus 0.09 kg CO2eq/kg for 1,329 km of rail transport.[S31][S0601] Melt-spinning PET pellets uses 4.9 MJ of heat (4.8 to 5.0 MJ) and 0.66 kWh of electricity (0.64 to 0.69 kWh) per kilogram of yarn, adding 1.69 kg CO2eq/kg shirt (0.87 heat, 0.82 electricity) for a 3.1 kg CO2eq/kg staple gate intensity.[S31][S0601] Melt spinning uses no solvents and keeps water use to 0.15 m3/kg shirt, but polymer persistence yields 1.0 kg/kg shirt of plastic accumulation versus 0.1 kg/kg for cellulosics.[S31][S0601]2.79 kg CO2eq/kg viscose shirt).[S31][S0601] The major carbon spike occurs in viscose staple spinning (7.82 kg CO2eq/kg shirt, or 37.8 percent of total viscose GWP): treating pulp with sodium hydroxide (0.55 kg/kg fibre) and carbon disulphide (CS2, 85.7 g/kg) and regenerating in sulphuric acid (0.77 kg H2SO4 and 12.2 g zinc/kg) uses 21.5 MJ of steam (19.4 to 25.5 MJ), 0.97 kWh of power (0.74 to 1.15 kWh) and 50.9 L/kg of water (4.37 heat, 1.33 electricity, 2.12 chemicals).[S31][S0601] Economic allocation between viscose (USD 2,000/t) and sodium sulphate (0.6 kg/kg fibre at USD 180/t) assigns 97.4 percent of burden to viscose, and CS2/sulphur emissions make viscose highest in ten of 18 ReCiPe categories.[S31][S0601]2.85 kg CO2eq/kg shirt) and forms no sodium sulphate co-product.[S31][S0601] Closed-loop N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) dissolution cuts staple-spinning chemical emissions from 2.12 to 1.25 kg CO2eq/kg (54.3 g NMMO make-up, 214.1 g HCl, 158.4 g NaOH and 42.3 g H2O2/kg fibre) and lowers shirt water use to 0.12 m3/kg.[S31][S0601] However, evaporating water to reconcentrate NMMO requires 24.4 MJ of steam (21.3 to 27.4 MJ) and 1.6 kWh of power (1.4 to 1.8 kWh) per kilogram of fibre, pushing Chinese Lyocell staple spinning to 8.75 kg CO2eq/kg shirt (5.07 heat, 2.42 electricity), a 6.1 kg CO2eq/kg staple intensity and a 21.61 kg CO2eq/kg shirt total.[S31][S0601]Under ISO 14067 and the GHG Protocol Product Standard, the headline totals of 14.09, 20.68 and 21.61 kg CO2eq/kg exclude the 1.8 kg CO2eq/kg shirt of embedded biogenic carbon (which would lower apparent gate totals to 12.3, 18.9 and 19.8 kg CO2eq/kg), because biogenic uptake and release must be tracked separately rather than netted against fossil process emissions.[S01][S05][S31]
6.4
Once staple fibres reach the spinning mill, conversion into yarn and greige fabric is mechanical: opening, carding, drawing, roving, ring spinning, winding and knitting or weaving.[R03][S08][S31] Mechanical yarn and fabric formation use virtually no steam in cellulosic lines, converting grid electricity directly into product carbon while multiplying upstream burdens through waste.[S31][S0601]
In the Chinese T-shirt inventory (Tables 3, 4 and S3 to S6), ring spinning (Yarn production) averages 3.2 kWh of electricity per kilogram of undyed yarn (range 1.7 to 5.0 kWh/kg) plus 8.7 L/kg of conditioning water (8.3 to 9.1 L/kg), contributing 3.56 kg CO2eq/kg of cotton, viscose or Lyocell shirt (100 percent from purchased electricity) and 3.35 kg CO2eq/kg for polyester (3.34 from electricity).[S31][S0601]
That single electrical load represents 25.3 percent of the cradle-to-gate footprint of a cotton T-shirt (3.56 / 14.09), 23.2 percent of polyester (3.35 / 14.41), 17.2 percent of viscose (3.56 / 20.68) and 16.5 percent of Lyocell (3.56 / 21.61).[S31][S0601] The three-to-one literature spread (1.7 to 5.0 kWh/kg yarn) shows why secondary averages cannot replace sub-metering: fine combed compact yarns spun at high twist on older frames approach 5.0 kWh/kg, whereas modern carded or rotor lines with variable-frequency drives operate near 1.7 kWh/kg.[S23][S31] Circular knitting adds 0.56 kWh/kg of undyed cellulosic fabric (0.09 to 1.39 kWh/kg), or 0.62 kg CO2eq/kg shirt, and 0.35 kWh/kg plus 0.19 MJ/kg heat for polyester (0.43 kg CO2eq/kg shirt).[S31][S0601] Together, spinning and knitting emit 4.18 kg CO2eq/kg in cellulosic shirts and 3.78 kg CO2eq/kg in polyester shirts, roughly eight times final cutting and sewing (0.51 kg CO2eq/kg).[S31][S0601]
1.00 kg of shirts after 10% assembly loss requires 1.11 kg of dyed fabric; 8% wet-processing loss requires 1.21 kg of undyed fabric; 2.3% knitting loss requires 1.23 kg of yarn; and 14.9% spinning loss (15% in Figure 2) requires 1.45 kg of ginned lint.[S31]1.00 kg of shirts after 10% assembly (1.11 kg dyed fabric), 3% wet-processing (1.14 kg undyed fabric), 1.5% knitting (1.16 kg yarn) and 15% spinning loss requires 1.37 kg of staple fibre and PET resin.[S31]1.45 kg to 1.00 kg textile cascade (31% loss), while a 62% wood loss in PHK pulping (36.3% mill yield) means 1.00 kg of shirt requires 3.82 kg of dry wood chips.[S31]Because 1.00 kg of cotton shirt requires spinning 1.23 kg of yarn, the garment absorbs 1.23 * 3.2 = 3.94 kWh of spinning power rather than 3.2 kWh.[S31] For Cameroon's textile sector, where July 2023 capacity utilisation stood at 33.7 percent at Garoua, 48.9 percent at CICAM 1 and 10.83 percent at CICAM 2, and where Camtext SA targets 12,000 tonnes of cotton a year, low utilisation and waste impose a double penalty by spreading fixed HVAC and compressor loads over fewer kilograms of yarn while amplifying lint demand.[R09][R10][R12][S20][S23]
6.7
Related · chapter 116 paragraphs step it
Read-out
Derived from an illustrative baseline of 1,000 kWh process heat per batch. An illustrative 25 percent demand reduction from insulation and heat recovery cuts heat to 750 kWh (S13, S1102). Supplying that heat via an industrial heat pump at an illustrative COP of 3.0 up to 150 C (S1102) cuts electrical input from 333 kWh to 250 kWh, versus 1,000 kWh to 750 kWh for an electric boiler at COP 1.0.
Unit: kWh per illustrative batch. Status: derived. Sources: S13, S1101, S1102.
Read this exhibit in its chapter ↗Tier 2 wet processing and finishing (pretreatment, dyeing, printing, washing-off and stenter drying) is the primary industrial thermal hotspot because heating and evaporating water across high-liquor baths demands megajoules of steam alongside specialty chemicals.[S08][S13][S31]
In the Chinese baseline of Forfora et al. (2026), wet processing is the largest carbon stage in cotton (5.26 kg CO2eq/kg shirt, 37.4 percent) and polyester (4.16 kg CO2eq/kg, 28.9 percent), and second-largest in viscose (5.26, 25.4 percent) and Lyocell (5.26, 24.3 percent) (Tables 3, 4 and S3 to S6):[S31][S0601]
24.1 MJ of steam, 0.76 kWh of power and 159.6 L of water (8% fabric loss), plus 74.5 g salt, 21.3 g soda ash, 4.4 g dye, 4.3 g acetic acid, 2.7 g caustic soda, 2.7 g hydrogen peroxide, 2.1 g sequestering agent, 2.1 g softener, 1.1 g each of wetting agent, soap, silicon, antigrease agent and sodium thiosulphate, 0.5 g each of oil remover and stabiliser, and 0.3 g enzyme.[S31] Scaled by cutting loss (1.11 kg dyed fabric/kg shirt), the 5.26 kg CO2eq/kg burden comprises 3.44 from steam (65.4 percent), 1.25 from chemicals (23.8 percent), 0.56 from electricity (10.6 percent) and 0.01 from other flows.[S0601]28 L/kg water and 0.47 kWh/kg power (2.3 g detergent, 2.2 g disperse dye, 1.0 g stabiliser, 0.7 g sodium dithionite and 0.1 g sodium carbonate; 3% loss), but pressurised dyeing and stenter heat-setting consume 22.9 MJ/kg of steam, emitting 4.16 kg CO2eq/kg shirt (3.27 heat, 0.48 electricity, 0.34 chemicals, 0.07 other).[S31][S0601]Exhibit 27 sums the four driver categories across all seven cradle-to-gate stages from Tables S3 to S6.[S0601]
Exhibit 27 confirms that energy conversion (Thermal heat plus Electricity) accounts for 68.3 percent of cradle-to-gate carbon in cotton (9.62 / 14.09 kg CO2eq/kg), 94.1 percent in polyester (13.56 / 14.41), 75.9 percent in viscose (15.69 / 20.68) and 81.1 percent in Lyocell (17.52 / 21.61).[S31][S0601] What Exhibit 27 does not separate is low-temperature hot water (60 to 95 degrees Celsius) versus medium-pressure steam (130 to 180 degrees Celsius), which engineers must meter at the boiler header to size heat-recovery and heat-pump systems.[S13][S20][S31]
Because every litre of water pumped into a dye bath must be heated and later drained or evaporated, cutting liquor ratios and recovering effluent heat directly reduces boiler fuel demand.[S13][S0602] In Bangladesh, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) Partnership for Cleaner Textiles (PaCT), cited in the SBTi sector guidance and IFC evaluations, began in wet processing across more than 200 factories.[S08][S13] By pairing low-liquor-ratio dyeing machines, condensate return, economisers and effluent heat recovery with automated chemical dosing, participating mills cut water use by 21 billion litres per year, saved 2.5 million megawatt-hours of energy per year and avoided 460,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions annually, while dyehouses such as Textown cut water use by 11 million litres per year alongside shorter batch times.[S13] Similarly, the WRI and Apparel Impact Institute Roadmap to Net Zero identifies six actions delivering roughly three-quarters of sector abatement for a 1.5 degree Celsius pathway: maximising material efficiency, scaling sustainable materials, accelerating innovative materials, proliferating energy efficiency, eliminating coal in manufacturing and shifting to 100 percent renewable electricity.[S0602] Lowering steam demand from 24.1 MJ/kg toward low-liquor benchmarks shrinks required boiler capacity before capital is committed to clean boilers.[S13][S31][S0602]
Interlude · the cloth half-woven
Woven: sections 6.0 to 6.7Still to weave: 6.10 to 6.16
Read-out
Sourced synthesis of full life cycle coverage in S01, the single climate impact category in S05, greenhouse gas metric assessment in S11, and activity data, emission factor and GWP disclosure in S23. The five fields are an organising device, not an additional reporting standard.
Unit: required accounting declarations. Status: sourced. Sources: S01, S05, S11, S23.
Read this exhibit in its chapter ↗6.10
Because thermal heat and electricity generate 68 to 94 percent of cradle-to-gate emissions (Exhibit 27), regional energy supply can outweigh intrinsic differences between fibres.[S31][S0601]
Because thermal heat and electricity generate 68 to 94 percent of cradle-to-gate emissions (Exhibit 27)
S31, S0601
67.7% coal, 20.2% biofuels/waste, 8.9% natural gas and 3.2% oil, with a coal-heavy grid.[S31]11.7% coal, 41.0% natural gas, 5.1% biofuels/waste and 42.2% oil.[S31]16.7% coal, 30.4% natural gas, 13.1% biofuels/waste and 39.8% oil.[S31]5.4% coal, 10.2% natural gas, 40.0% biofuels/waste and 44.5% oil, with a predominantly hydroelectric grid.[S31]Exhibit 28 shows the resulting cradle-to-gate footprints from Figure 4 of the study.[S31]
Exhibit 28 shows the resulting cradle-to-gate footprints from Figure 4 of the study
S31
Read-out
Sourced from Figure 4 and Section 3.2 of Forfora et al. (2026) regional sensitivity analysis (S31). Raw material inputs (cotton lint, PET resin, dissolving pulp) and process unit efficiencies are held constant at baseline values while processing electricity (ecoinvent 3.10) and steam fuel mixes (IEA) are regionalised for China, USA, Europe and Brazil.
Unit: kg CO2eq per kg of T-shirt (cradle-to-gate). Status: sourced. Sources: S31.
Three conclusions follow from Exhibit 28:[S31] 1. Up to 38 percent reduction in cleaner energy systems: Shifting processing from China to Brazil cuts Lyocell from 21.6 to 13.5 kg CO2eq/kg (-37.5 percent, reported as up to 38 percent), viscose from 20.7 to 13.5 (-34.8 percent), polyester from 14.4 to 9.2 (-36.1 percent) and cotton from 14.1 to 9.2 (-34.8 percent).[S31] 2. Cross-regional ranking inversions: A Lyocell or viscose shirt made in Brazil (13.5 kg CO2eq/kg) emits less carbon per kilogram than a cotton (14.1) or polyester (14.4) shirt made in China, while European viscose (14.7) and Lyocell (15.3), where Austria holds 4.5 percent of world viscose and 22.1 percent of world Lyocell capacity, nearly match Chinese cotton and polyester before tenacity adjustments.[S31] 3. Convergence of Lyocell and viscose: In China, Lyocell's higher solvent-recovery energy (1.6 vs 0.97 kWh/kg and 24.4 vs 21.5 MJ/kg) puts it 0.93 kg CO2eq/kg above viscose (21.61 vs 20.68).[S31][S0601] In Brazil, both converge to 13.5 kg CO2eq/kg, delivering Lyocell's 35 percent lower freshwater ecotoxicity and 62 percent lower human non-carcinogenic toxicity without a carbon penalty.[S31]
Because Exhibit 28 holds upstream agriculture and pulping fixed and its 1,000-iteration Monte Carlo simulations (Tables S8 to S11) show overlapping uncertainty ranges, regional averages cannot replace site utility bills.[S14][S16][S31][S0601]
…and pulping fixed and its 1,000-iteration Monte Carlo simulations (Tables S8 to S11) show…
S14, S16, S31, S0601
For Cameroon, which aims to lift local cotton processing from roughly 5 percent to 50 percent by 2030 through the SODECOTON-CICAM industrial pole and the USD 300 million (180 billion XAF) Camtext SA project (12,000 tonnes/year across Garoua and Dibamba), processing energy will decide whether local garments are low-carbon.[R06][R07][R08][R09][R10] Cameroon's grid is predominantly hydroelectric with World Bank-backed hydro, solar and transmission expansions, alongside a 54 percent national access rate in the 2026 IEA profile.[S09][S28] Under GHG Protocol Scope 2 (S03), IEA (S14) and UK conversion factor (S20) rules, a Cameroonian mill account must date grid factors to the production year, separate generation from transmission losses, meter Scope 1 diesel burned in backup generators during outages (plus Scope 3 Category 3 well-to-tank emissions), and meter boiler fuels directly, since hydroelectricity on spinning frames will not decarbonise a dyehouse boiler unless steam (24.1 MJ/kg) comes from sustainable biomass or heat pumps rather than heavy fuel oil.[R03][S03][S04][S11][S14][S20][S23]
6.13
Cotton
Cotton: Constant 250 g shirt 3.5, Equivalent-tenacity shirt 3.5. Difference +0 (kg CO2eq per T-shirt (China baseline)) · derived
Comparing fabrics solely per kilogram of mass ignores why engineers select specific fibres and yarn counts.
Polyester
Polyester: Constant 250 g shirt 3.6, Equivalent-tenacity shirt 1.7. Difference -1.9 (kg CO2eq per T-shirt (China baseline)) · derived
Viscose
Viscose: Constant 250 g shirt 5.2, Equivalent-tenacity shirt 5.2. Difference +0 (kg CO2eq per T-shirt (China baseline)) · derived
Lyocell
Lyocell: Constant 250 g shirt 5.4, Equivalent-tenacity shirt 3.3. Difference -2.1 (kg CO2eq per T-shirt (China baseline)) · derived
The method behind it: Worked example.
Derived from the exact China baseline GWP values in Table S7 of Forfora et al. (2026) Supplemental Material (14.09 kg CO2eq/kg cotton, 14.41 polyester, 20.68 viscose, 21.61 Lyocell; S0601) multiplied by the constant garment mass (0.250 kg for all four fibres; Figure 3A) and the equivalent-tenacity garment mass (0.250 kg cotton, 0.115 kg polyester, 0.250 kg viscose, 0.153 kg Lyocell; Table 2 and Figure S7A in S31, S0601).
Unit: kg CO2eq per T-shirt (China baseline). Status: derived. Sources: S31, S0601.
6.13 · the bodyExhibit 29 above; its figures are illustrative where marked.
Drawing on Uster Statistics benchmarks (Section 2.3 and Table 2), Forfora et al. (2026) calculate the T-shirt mass required to withstand an equivalent force of 3,725 g·cN/tex against a 250 g cotton shirt:[S31]
14.9 cN/tex, 0.44 g/cm3, 6.1% elongation): 250 g (0.250 kg) per shirt.[S31]14.9 cN/tex, 0.53 g/cm3, 14.7% elongation): 250 g (0.250 kg) per shirt.[S31]24.3 cN/tex, 0.63 g/cm3, 8.8% elongation): 153 g (0.153 kg), a 38.8 percent mass reduction.[S31]32.5 cN/tex, 0.55 g/cm3, 11.8% elongation): 115 g (0.115 kg), a 54.0 percent mass reduction.[S31]Exhibit 29 shows how scaling from a constant 250-gram shirt to equivalent-tenacity mass reorders the four fibres in China (Figure 3A and Figure S7A).[S31][S0601]
…how scaling from a constant 250-gram shirt to equivalent-tenacity mass reorders the four fibres…
S31, S0601
Under a constant 250-gram mass (start in Exhibit 29), cotton is lowest at 3.52 kg CO2eq/shirt (14.09 * 0.250), followed by polyester at 3.60, viscose at 5.17 and Lyocell at 5.40.[S31][S0601] Under equivalent tenacity (end), polyester drops to 1.66 kg CO2eq/shirt (14.41 * 0.115) and Lyocell drops to 3.31 kg CO2eq/shirt (21.61 * 0.153), both beating the 250-gram cotton shirt (3.52), while in Brazil's cleaner energy mix (9.2 and 13.5 kg CO2eq/kg) equivalent-tenacity shirts fall to 1.06 kg CO2eq for polyester and 2.07 kg CO2eq for Lyocell versus 2.30 kg CO2eq for cotton.[S31][S0601] Because buyers also specify fabric weight (g/m2) for opacity, drape and hand feel, GFT reports tenacity-adjusted footprints as a functional-equivalence sensitivity alongside actual shipped weight.[S24][S26][S31]
6.16
Secondary databases such as ecoinvent (representing average geographical conditions rather than site-specific operations), the Quantis World Apparel and Footwear Life Cycle Assessment Database (WALDB), and the Higg Materials Sustainability Index (MSI) and Facility Environmental Module (FEM) referenced in the SBTi apparel guidance are essential for initial hotspot screening.[S08][S16][S17][S24] However, three rules prevent secondary factors from validating supplier abatement:[S08][S22][S23] 1. Boundary overlap between material and facility modules: As the SBTi guidance warns for Higg MSI and FEM, combining secondary material factors with Tier 2 facility reports requires strict boundary reconciliation so spinning or dyeing is neither double counted nor omitted.[S08][S23] 2. Invisibility of mill efficiency gains: Multiplying fabric mass by a static database average records zero carbon reduction when a mill in Garoua or Dibamba cuts spinning power from 3.2 to 2.2 kWh/kg, lowers spinning loss from 14.9 to 9.0 percent, or switches boiler fuels.[R10][S20][S23][S31] 3. Unverified supplier totals: As the GHG Protocol Scope 3 Guidance notes, an unverified single figure from a supplier can be less accurate than an industry average if the supplier omits boiler fuels, misapplies co-product allocation or ignores process waste.[S10][S23][S31]
To make upstream data verifiable, GFT structures its supplier and internal mill requests around WBCSD PACT Version 3 (S10), IFC PaCT metrics (S13), UK activity-based conversion rules (S20) and GHG Protocol Scope 3 guidance (S23).[S10][S13][S20][S23] Exhibit 30 presents GFT's illustrative stage-gate data request table.[S10][S13][S23]
GFT structures its supplier and internal mill requests around WBCSD PACT Version 3 (S10)
S10, S13, S20, S23
Read-out
| 1. Ginning or staple fibre | Net kg lint or staple fibre; staple length; linear density (dtex) | Grid kWh; captive generator kWh; process steam MJ by boiler fuel | Water m3/t; pulp or polymer kg/kg; solvent make-up (CS2 or NMMO g/kg) | Gin trash or pulp loss %; seed or Na2SO4 co-product kg and revenue share | 12-month period; economic vs mass rule; utility bills and mass ledger |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2. Yarn preparation (spinning) | Net kg conditioned yarn; yarn count (Ne or tex); tenacity (cN/tex) | Metered ring/rotor kWh/kg; humidification and compressor kWh/kg | Conditioning water L/kg; spinning oil or sizing chemicals g/kg | Incoming fibre loss %; card/comber noil kg sold vs waste incinerated | Production period; allocation by spindle-hours or count-adjusted kg |
| 3. Fabric formation (knit/weave) | Net kg greige fabric; areal weight (g/m2); width and construction | Knitting/weaving machine kWh/kg; warping and sizing heat MJ/kg | Lubricating oil, warp size and desizing recovery inputs g/kg | Knitting/weaving fallout %; selvedge and yarn end waste treatment | Production period; machine-hour or mass allocation; quality log |
| 4. Wet processing and finishing | Net kg finished fabric; colour shade depth; shrinkage and fastness | Metered dyehouse kWh/kg; boiler steam MJ/kg; condensate return % | Total water L/kg (liquor ratio); salt, alkali, peroxide, dye, auxiliaries g/kg | Wet-processing loss %; sludge kg; effluent treatment methane/N2O basis | Batch/period log; thermal fuel invoices; PACT/ISO 14044 review status |
Illustrative stage-gate supplier data request template designed by GFT from the primary-data, allocation and verification principles in WBCSD PACT Version 3 (S10), IFC PaCT textile resource-efficiency metrics (S13), UK GHG conversion factor activity rules (S20), GHG Protocol Scope 3 Calculation Guidance (S23) and the stage inventory structure of Forfora et al. (2026) (S31).
Unit: mandatory supplier reporting fields by textile stage. Status: illustrative. Sources: S10, S13, S20, S23, S31. Illustrative figures are teaching examples, not measured factory results.
Exhibit 30 enforces physical conservation checks across every tier: recording yarn count, tenacity (cN/tex) and fabric weight (g/m2) tests functional equivalence; separating grid kilowatt-hours, backup diesel and boiler steam fuel prevents suppliers from applying grid factors to thermal steam; pairing water liquor ratios (L/kg) with steam (MJ/kg) exposes under-reported boiler fuel; and logging stage losses (1.45 kg input fibre/kg shirt) and co-product revenue shares makes allocation auditable.[S03][S10][S13][S20][S23][S26][S31]
Stage-by-stage calculation and reconciliation method for fibre, yarn and fabric modules
alpha_s) to co-products (cottonseed, comber noils, sodium sulphate), and account for fossil synthetic waste incineration (2.31 kg CO2/kg in S31) separately from biogenic carbon.[S23][S26][S31]Warning
Unresolved constraint: absence of audited primary energy and steam sub-metering in Cameroonian textile mills
While GFT's evidence base records Cameroon's cotton-to-textile structure (more than 220,000 cotton producers, nine SODECOTON gins and two oil mills, July 2023 capacity utilisation of 33.7 percent at Garoua, 48.9 percent at CICAM 1 and 10.83 percent at CICAM 2, restructuring estimates of CFAF 30.7 to 70.2 billion, and the announced USD 300 million Camtext SA project), no public, audited sub-meter records exist for kilowatt-hours per kilogram of yarn spun or megajoules of steam per kilogram of fabric dyed in Cameroon.[R03][R09][R10][R12][R13] Until Phase 1 sub-meters are commissioned on spinning frames, knitting machines and boiler headers, Cameroonian carbon models must label process energy intensities (kWh/kg and MJ/kg) as secondary screening proxies (S31) paired with dated Cameroonian grid and fuel scenarios (S09, S14, S28), never as measured domestic mill performance.[S16][S22][S23][S31]
Check the record
Every knot is a source this chapter cites; select one to read its record, or filter the register by grade. Publication dates and inherited-source limits stay explicit. Read the paper's full evidence summary.
34 sources · 273 citation marks on this pageMost cited: S31, 86 times
Grade AGrade BGrade CKnot size: citations on this page
All 34 records shown
R03 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R03
Company profile: more than 220,000 cotton producers supported in northern Cameroon; nine ginning plants; two oil mills.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R06 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R06
About 95 percent of cotton fibre exported raw against 5 percent processed locally; industrialisation target of 50 percent local processing.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R07 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R07
SND30 restates the 50 percent local-processing target by 2030.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R08 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R08
Announced SODECOTON and CICAM merger to create a cotton-textile industrial pole targeted by 2030.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R09 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R09
Camtext SA integrated cotton-to-textile project, US$300 million (180 billion XAF); Panafritex and Arise with SODECOTON, CNPS and Marlo; 12 November 2025.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R10 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R10
Camtext SA: 12,000 t a year processed; about 12,000 jobs at the Dibamba hub and 3,000 at Garoua; return on investment near 11 years; optimal capacity around 2033.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R12 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R12
CICAM capacity utilisation, July 2023 report: Garoua 33.7 percent, CICAM 1 48.9 percent, CICAM 2 10.83 percent; underutilisation cost about CFAF 2 billion in 2020.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R13 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R13
CICAM restructuring cost estimate CFAF 30.7 to 48.2 billion; one relaunch plan cited at 70.2 billion.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R28 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R28
Fabric-defect-detection AI market US$523.4 million (2024) to US$6,522.1 million (2033) at 33.8 percent a year; Asia-Pacific about 46 percent in 2024.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
R29 · Grade C · inherited record
Inherited evidence R29
Manual defect inspection 60 to 70 percent accurate, missing 20 to 30 percent of defects; computer vision above 90 percent across more than 40 defect types; line-scan inspection up to 60 metres a minute.
Publication date unrecorded. Inherited source-text record. The original publication has not been independently reopened for this web edition.
c06-S01 · Grade A
Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard
Using the standard, companies can measure the greenhouse gases associated with the full life cycle of products including raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, storage, use and disposal.
2011. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S02 · Grade A
Corporate Value Chain Scope 3 Accounting and Reporting Standard
Users of the standard can now account for emissions from 15 categories of Scope 3 activities, both upstream and downstream of their operations.
2011. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S03 · Grade A
Scope 2 Guidance
The Scope 2 Guidance standardizes how corporations measure emissions from purchased or acquired electricity, steam, heat and cooling (called "scope 2 emissions").
2015. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S04 · Grade A
Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard
The GHG Protocol Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard provides requirements and guidance for companies and other organizations preparing a corporate-level GHG emissions inventory.
2004. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S05 · Grade A
ISO 14067:2018 Carbon footprint of products
This document addresses only a single impact category: climate change.
2018-08. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S07 · Grade B
Materials Market Report 2025
The latest report, which looks at total fiber volumes used for apparel, home textiles, footwear, or any other application, shows that global fiber production increased from 125 million tonnes in 2023 to 132 million tonnes in 2024.
2025-09-18. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S08 · Grade B
Apparel and Footwear Sector Science-Based Targets Guidance
Value chain (scope 3) emissions are significant for this sector, and companies face numerous barriers to address them.
2019. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S09 · Grade A
Cameroon country energy profile
Electrification rates are relatively high in Cameroon compared to the Central African region: 54% of the population has access to electricity, while consumption remains low.
2026. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S10 · Grade B
PACT Methodology Version 3 for product carbon footprints
The PACT Methodology Version 3 provides a harmonized, transparent, and practical framework for product-level carbon accounting.
2025-04-30. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S11 · Grade A
AR6 Working Group I Chapter 7: The Earth's energy budget, climate feedbacks, and climate sensitivity
This chapter assesses emission metrics, which are used to quantify how the climate response due to the emission of different greenhouse gases compares to the response to the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2).
2021-08-06. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S13 · Grade A
Bangladesh's textile sector weaves a clean, sustainable future
PaCT has now entered a second phase, expanding its focus from dyeing and finishing sectors to the entire textile value chain.
2018-01-29. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S14 · Grade A
Emissions Factors 2026
Annual GHG emission factors for World countries from electricity and heat generation.
2026-09-25. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S16 · Grade B
Introduction to the database
The processes in the ecoinvent database represent the average production conditions within a geographical location, rather than company-specific or site-specific conditions.
2025-11-05. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S17 · Grade B
World Apparel and Footwear Life Cycle Assessment Database
The methodology underpinning WALDB is rigorous and comprehensive, compliant with globally recognized ISO 14040 standards for consistency and coherence across the database.
2026-10-09. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S20 · Grade A
Greenhouse gas reporting conversion factors 2026
The UK government conversion factors for company reporting of greenhouse gas emissions enable users to calculate and report their emissions based on their activity data, such as volume of fuel used, kWh of electricity purchased, or distance travelled, for their Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions separately.
2026-06-11. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S22 · Grade B
Life Cycle Assessment studies and responsible data use
Results from LCA studies are sensitive to methodological choices, assumptions, and boundaries.
2026-07-16. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S23 · Grade A
Technical Guidance for Calculating Scope 3 Emissions
In fact, data collected from a supplier may actually be less accurate than industry-average data for a particular product.
2013. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S24 · Grade A
ISO 14040:2006 Life cycle assessment principles and framework
The intended application of LCA or LCI results is considered during definition of the goal and scope, but the application itself is outside the scope of this International Standard.
2006-07. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S25 · Grade A
ISO 14044:2006 Life cycle assessment requirements and guidelines
ISO 14044:2006 covers life cycle assessment (LCA) studies and life cycle inventory (LCI) studies.
2006-07. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S26 · Grade B
Review of Methodological Choices in LCA-Based Textile and Apparel Rating Tools
This review found that the provision of, and adherence to the appropriate standards and best practice in LCA would rectify most of these issues.
2019-07-15. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S28 · Grade A
Cameroon's journey toward affordable, reliable, and universal electricity access for all
Cameroon is embracing renewable energy to lower costs and cut carbon emissions.
2025-01-16. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S31 · Grade B
A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of T-Shirt Production Using from Viscose, Lyocell, Cotton, and Polyester
However, Lyocell also shows the highest carbon footprint (21.6 kg CO2eq/kg) unless produced in regions with cleaner energy mixes.
2026-04-20. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S0601 · Grade B
Supplemental Material: A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of T-Shirt Production Using from Viscose, Lyocell, Cotton, and Polyester
Table S7: ReCiPe (H) midpoint categories for 1 kg of T-shirt manufactured with cotton, polyester, viscose, and Lyocell fibers in China.
2026-04-20. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗c06-S0602 · Grade B
Roadmap to Net Zero: Delivering Science-Based Targets in the Apparel Sector
This report identifies six interventions to deliver roughly three quarters of reductions to align with a 1.5°C scenario: maximizing material efficiency, scaling sustainable materials and practices, accelerating the development of innovative materials, proliferating energy efficiency, eliminating coal in manufacturing, and shifting to 100% renewable electricity.
2021-11-05. Register access date: 2026-10-30. Source provenance is supplied by the paper evidence register.
Open the recorded source ↗S08 Science Based Targets initiative and World Resources Institute. 2019.
S31 Forfora et al., Sustainability. 2026-04-20.
S0601 Forfora et al., Sustainability. 2026-04-20.
R06 Cameroon Trade Hub. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
R07 Ecofin Agency. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
S20 UK Department for Energy Security and Net Zero. 2026-06-11.
S23 GHG Protocol and Carbon Trust. 2013.
S02 GHG Protocol. 2011.
S16 ecoinvent. 2025-11-05.
S07 Textile Exchange. 2025-09-18.
S01 GHG Protocol. 2011.
S05 International Organization for Standardization. 2018-08.
R03 SODECOTON. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
R09 Ecofin Agency. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
R10 Ecofin Agency. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
R12 Business in Cameroon. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
S13 International Finance Corporation. 2018-01-29.
S0602 World Resources Institute and Apparel Impact Institute. 2021-11-05.
S14 International Energy Agency. 2026-09-25.
R08 Business in Cameroon. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
S09 International Energy Agency. 2026.
S28 World Bank. 2025-01-16.
S03 GHG Protocol. 2015.
S04 GHG Protocol. 2004.
S11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2021-08-06.
S26 Watson and Wiedemann, Sustainability. 2019-07-15.
S24 International Organization for Standardization. 2006-07.
S10 World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 2025-04-30.
S17 Quantis. 2026-10-09.
S22 Textile Exchange. 2026-07-16.
R28 DataIntelo. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
R29 MDPI; industry inspection literature. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
S25 International Organization for Standardization. 2006-07.
R13 Business in Cameroon; MMI News. Publication date unrecorded; inherited source-text check.
Keep the thread · chapter 06 of 14
Move the shuttle along the rack to preview any chapter: its sections, exhibits and reading time. Draft web edition. This research is not investment, legal or tax advice; illustrative models are not measured factory results.
The paper's rack · 14 boltsBolt length: reading time
01Part I: Build the account before the claim
A garment number becomes decision-ready only when its boundary, function, evidence and intended use are explicit.
02Part I: Build the account before the claim
A controlled chart of accounts lets site emissions, supplier emissions and product emissions meet once and only once.
03Part I: Build the account before the claim
The same inventory can support a sourcing decision or mislead the public, depending on the function and boundary chosen.
04Part I: Build the account before the claim
A screening model earns its keep by showing where primary evidence will change the decision most.
05Part II: Follow carbon through the garment
A cotton footprint is built from farm activity and allocation choices, not from a generic natural-fibre label.
06Part II: Follow carbon through the garment
Processing geography, thermal energy and functional performance can matter as much as the fibre name.
07Part II: Follow carbon through the garment
A factory can account precisely for its own operations only when utilities, output and allocation share the same time and line structure.
08Part II: Follow carbon through the garment
A route footprint depends on mass, loading, mode, fuel, empty running and upstream energy, not only kilometres.
09Part II: Follow carbon through the garment
A garment is not fully accounted until care, service life and disposal are made explicit.
10Part III: Reduce carbon without moving the problem
A reduction claim is credible only when a measured action changes a defined baseline without shifting the burden elsewhere.
11Part III: Reduce carbon without moving the problem
Electricity and heat decarbonisation require meter data, contractual evidence and a separate solution for thermal demand.
12Part III: Reduce carbon without moving the problem
A lower footprint per garment is not enough when volume, substitution or rebound raises the total.
13Part IV: Make the account operable
Every published footprint needs reproducible arithmetic, proportionate review and wording bounded by the evidence.
14Part IV: Make the account operable
The first shift should produce a controlled carbon record that improves with each phase of the factory's operating system.